Frederick Winslow Taylor
Taylor Home
Introduction
Chapter 1
Chapter 2, Part 1
Chapter 2, Part 3
Principles of Scientific Management
Chapter 2
Part 2
The question which naturally presents itself is whether an elaborate organization of this sort can be made to pay for itself; whether
such an organization is not top-heavy. This question will best be answered by a statement of the results of the third year of working
under this plan.
The number of yard laborers was reduced from between 400 & 600 down to about 140
Average number of tons per man per day went from 16 to 59
Average earnings per man per day went from $i.15 to $1.88
Average cost of handling a ton of 2240 lbs went from $0.072 down to $0.033
And in computing the low cost of $0.033 per ton, the office and tool-room expenses, and the wages of all labor superintendents, foremen, clerks, time-study men, etc., are included.
During this year the total saving of the new plan over the old amounted to $36,417.69, and during the six months following, when all of the work of the yard was on task work, the saving was at the rate of between $75,000 and $80,000 per year.
Perhaps the most important of all the results attained was the effect on the workmen themselves. A careful inquiry into the condition of these men developed the fact that out of the 140 workmen only two were said to be drinking men. This does not, of course, imply that many of them did not take an occasional drink. The fact is that a steady drinker would find it almost impossible to keep up with the pace which was set, so that they were practically all sober. Many, if not most of them, were saving money, and they all lived better than they had before. These men constituted the finest body of picked laborers that the writer has ever seen together, and they looked upon the men who were over them, their bosses and their teachers, as their very best friends; not as nigger drivers, forcing them to work extra hard for ordinary wages, but as friends who were teaching them and helping them to earn much higher wages than they had ever earned before. It would have been absolutely impossible for any one to have stirred up strife between these men and their employers. And this presents a very simple though effective illustration of what is meant by the words "prosperity for the employee, coupled with prosperity for the employer," the two principal objects of management. It is evident also that this result has been brought about by the application of the four fundamental principles of scientific management.
As another illustration of the value of a scientific study of the motives which influence workmen in their daily work, the loss of
ambition and initiative will be cited, which takes place in workmen when they are herded into gangs instead of being treated as
separate individuals. A careful analysis had demonstrated the fact that when workmen are herded together in gangs, each man in the
gang becomes far less efficient than when his personal ambition is stimulated; that when men work in gangs, their individual
efficiency falls almost invariably down to or below the level of the worst man in the gang; and that they are all pulled down instead of
being elevated by being herded together. For this reason a general order had been issued in the Bethlehem Steel Works that not more
than four men were to be allowed to work in a labor gang without a special permit, signed by the General Superintendent of the
works, this special permit to extend for one week only. it was arranged that as far as possible each laborer should be given a separate
individual task. As there were about 5000 men at work in the establishment, the General Superintendent had so much to do that there
was but little time left for signing these special permits.
After gang work had been by this means broken up, an unusually fine set of ore shovelers had been developed, through careful
selection and individual, scientific training. Each of these men was given a separate ear to unload each day, and his wages depended
upon his own personal work. The man who unloaded the largest amount of ore was paid the highest wages, and an unusual
opportunity came for demonstrating the importance of individualizing each workman. Much of this ore came from the Lake Superior
region, and the same ore was delivered both in Pittsburg and in Bethlehem in exactly similar cars. There was a shortage of ore
handlers in Pittsburg, and hearing of the fine gang of laborers that had been developed at Bethlehem, one of the Pittsburg steel works
sent an agent to hire the Bethlehem men. The Pittsburg men offered 4 9/10 cents a ton for unloading exactly the same ore, with the
same shovels, from the same cars, that were unloaded in Bethlehem for 3 2/10 cents a ton. After carefully considering this situation,
it was decided that it would be unwise to pay more than 3 2/10 cents per ton for unloading the Bethlehem cars, because, at this rate,
the Bethlehem laborers were earning a little over $1.85 per man per day, and this price was 60 per cent more than the ruling rate of
wages around Bethlehem.
A long series of experiments, coupled with close observation, had demonstrated the fact that when workmen of this caliber are given a carefully measured task, which calls for a big day's work on their part, and that when in return for this extra effort they are paid wages up to 60 per cent beyond the wages usually paid, that this increase in wages tends to make them not only more thrifty but better men in every way; that they live rather better, begin to save money, become more sober, and work more steadily. When, on the other hand, they receive much more than a 60 per cent increase in wages, many of them will work irregularly and tend to become more or less shiftless, extravagant, and dissipated. Our experiments showed, in other words, that it does not do for most men to get rich too fast.
After deciding, for this reason, not to raise the wages of our ore handlers, these men were brought into the office one at a time, and talked to somewhat as follows:
"Now, Patrick, you have proved to us that you are a high-priced man. You have been earning every day a little more than $1.85, and
you are just the sort of man that we want to have in our ore-shoveling gang. A man has come here from Pittsburg, who is offering 4
9/10 cents per ton for handling ore while we can pay only 3 2/10 cents per ton. I think, therefore, that you had better apply to this
man for a job. Of course, you know we are very sorry to have you leave us, but you have proved yourself a high-priced man, and
we are very glad to see you get this chance of earning more money. Just remember, however, that at any time in the future, when
you get out of a job, you can always come right back to us. There will always be a job for a high-priced man like you in our gang
here."
Almost all of the ore handlers took this advice, and went to Pittsburg, but in about six weeks most of them were again back in
Bethlehem unloading ore at the old rate of 3 2/10 cents a ton. The writer had the following talk with one of these men after he had
returned:
"Patrick, what are you doing back here? I thought we had gotten rid of you."
"Well, sir, I'll tell you how it was. When we got out there Jimmy and I were put on to a car with eight other men. We started to
shovel the ore out just the same as we do here. After about half an hour I saw a little devil alongside of me doing pretty near nothing,
so I said to him, 'Why don't you go to work? Unless we get the ore out of this car we won't get any money on pay-day.' He turned
to me and said, 'Who in -- -- -- are you?' 'Well,' I said, 'that's none of your business'; and the little devil stood up to me and said,
'You'll be minding your own business, or I'll throw you off this car!' 'Well, I could have spit on him and drowned him, but the rest of
the men put down their shovels and looked as if they were going to back him up; so I went round to Jimmy and said (so that the
whole gang could hear it), 'Now, Jimmy, you and I will throw a shovelful
whenever this little devil throws one, and not another shovelful.' So we watched him, and only shoveled when he shoveled. -- When pay-day came around, though, we had less money than we got here at Bethlehem. After that Jimmy and I went in to the boss, and asked him for a car to ourselves, the same as we got at Bethlehem, but he told us to mind our own business. And when another pay-day came around we had less money than we got here at Bethlehem, so Jimmy and I got the gang together and brought them all back here to work again."
When working each man for himself, these men were able to earn higher wages at 3 2/10 cents a ton than they could earn when they were paid 4 9/10 cents a ton on gang work; and this again shows the great gain which results from working according to even the most elementary of scientific principles. But it also shows that in the application of the most elementary principles it is necessary for the management to do their share of the work in cooperating with the workmen. The Pittsburg managers knew just how the results had been attained at Bethlehem, but they were unwilling to go to the small trouble and expense required to plan ahead and assign a separate car to each shoveler, and then keep an individual record of each man's work, and pay him just what he had earned.
Bricklaying is one of the oldest of our trades. For hundreds of years there has been little or no improvement made in the implements
and materials used in this trade, nor in fact in the method of laying bricks. In spite of the millions of men who have practised this
trade, no great improvement has been evolved for many generations. Here, then, at least, one would expect to find but little gain
possible through scientific analysis and study. Mr Frank B. Gilbreth, a member of our Society, who had himself studied bricklaying
in his youth, became interested in the principles of scientific management, and decided to apply them to the art of bricklaying. He
made an intensely interesting analysis and study of each movement of the bricklayer, and one after another eliminated all unnecessary
movements and substituted fast for slow motions. He experimented with every minute element which in any way affects the speed
and the tiring of the bricklayer.
He developed the exact position which each of the feet of the bricklayer should occupy with relation to the wall, the mortar box, and the pile of bricks, and so made it unnecessary for him to take a step or two toward the pile of bricks and back again each time a brick is laid.
He studied the best height for the mortar box and brick pile, and then designed a scaffold, with a table on it, upon which all of the materials are placed, so as to keep the bricks, the mortar, the man, and the wall in their proper relative positions. These scaffolds are adjusted, as the wall grows in height, for all of the bricklayers by a laborer especially detailed for this purpose, and by this means the bricklayer is saved the exertion of stooping down to the level of his feet for each brick and each trowelful of mortar and then straightening up again. Think of the waste of effort that has gone on through all these years, with each bricklayer lowering his body, weighing, say, 150 pounds, down two feet and raising it up again every time a brick (weighing about 5 pounds) is laid in the wall! And this each bricklayer did about one thousand times a day.
As a result of further study, after the bricks are unloaded from the cars, and before bringing them to the bricklayer, they are carefully sorted by a laborer, and placed with their best edge up on a simple wooden frame, constructed so as to enable him to take hold of each brick in the quickest time and in the most advantageous position. In this way the bricklayer avoids either having to turn the brick over or end for end to examine it before laying it, and he saves, also, the time taken in deciding which is the best edge and end to place on the outside of the wall. In most eases, also, he saves the time taken in disentangling the brick from a disorderly pile on the scaffold. This "pack" of bricks (as Mr Gilbreth calls his loaded wooden frames) is placed by the helper in its proper position on the adjustable scaffold close to the mortar box.
We have all been used to seeing bricklayers tap each brick after it is placed on its bed of mortar several times with the end of the
handle of the trowel so as to secure the right thickness for the joint. Mr Gilbreth found that by tempering the mortar just right, the
bricks could be readily bedded to the proper depth by a downward pressure of the hand with which they are laid. He insisted that his
mortar mixers should give special attention to tempering the mortar, and so save the time consumed in tapping the brick.
Through all of this minute study of the motions to be made by the bricklayer inlaying bricks under standard conditions, Mr Gilbreth has reduced his movements from eighteen motions per brick to five, and even in one case to as low as two motions per brick. He has given all of the details of this analysis to the profession in the chapter headed "Motion Study," of his book entitled "Bricklaying System," published by Myron C. Clerk Publishing Company, New York and Chicago; E. F. N. Spon, of London.
An analysis of the expedients used by Mr Gilbreth in reducing the motions of his bricklayers from eighteen to five shows that this improvement has been made in three different ways:
First. He has entirely dispensed with certain movements which the bricklayers in the past believed were necessary; but which a careful study and trial on his part have shown to be useless.
Second. He has introduced simple apparatus, such as his adjustable scaffold and his packets for holding the bricks, by means of which, with a very small amount of cooperation from a cheap laborer, he entirely eliminates a lot of tiresome and time-consuming motions which are necessary for the bricklayer who lacks the scaffold and the packet.
Third. He teaches his bricklayers to make simple motions with both hands at the same time, where before they completed a motion with the right hand and followed it later with one from the left hand.
For example, Mr Gilbreth teaches his bricklayer to pick up a brick in the left hand at the same instant that he takes a trowelful of
mortar with the right hand. This work with two hands at the same time is, of course, made possible by substituting a deep mortar
box for the old mortar board (on which the mortar spread out so thin that a step or two had to be taken to reach it) and then placing
the mortar box and the brick pile close together, and at the proper height on his new scaffold.
These three kinds of improvements are typical of the ways in which needless motions can be entirely eliminated and quicker types of movements substituted for slow movements when scientific motion study, as Mr Gilbreth calls his analysis, time study, as the writer has called similar work, are applied in any trade.
Most practical men would (knowing the opposition of almost all tradesmen to making any change in their methods and habits),
however, be skeptical as to the possibility of actually achieving any large results from a study of this sort. Mr Gilbreth reports that a
few months ago, in a large brick building which he erected, he demonstrated on a commercial scale the great gain which is possible
from practically applying his scientific study. With union bricklayers, in laying a factory wall, twelve inches thick, with two kinds of
brick, faced and ruled joints on both sides of the wall, he averaged, after his selected workmen had become skilful in his new
methods, 350 bricks per man per hour; whereas the average speed of doing this work with the old methods was, in that section of
the country, 120 bricks per man per hour. His bricklayers were taught his new method of bricklaying by their foreman. These who
failed to profit by their teaching were dropped, and each man, as he became proficient under the new method, received a substantial
(not a small) increase in his wages. With a view to individualizing his workmen and stimulating each man to do his best, Mr Gilbreth
also developed an ingenious method for measuring and recording the number of bricks laid by each man, and for telling each
workman at frequent intervals how many bricks he had succeeded in laying.
It is only when this work is compared with the conditions which prevail under the tyranny of some of our misguided bricklayers' unions that the great waste of human effort which is going on will be realized. In one foreign city the bricklayers union have restricted their men to 275 bricks per day on work of this character when working for the city, and 375 per day when working for private owners. The members of this union are probably sincere in their belief that this restriction of output is a benefit to their trade. It should be plain to all men, however, that this deliberate loafing is almost criminal, in that it inevitably results in making every workman's family pay higher rent for their housing, and also in the end drives work and trade away from their city, instead of bringing it to it.
Why is it, in a trade which has been continually practised since before the Christian era, and with implements practically the same as they now are, that this simplification of the bricklayer's movements, this great gain, has not been made before?
It is highly likely that many times during all of these years individual bricklayers have recognized the possibility of eliminating each of these unnecessary motions. But even if, in the past, he did invent each one of Mr Gilbreth's improvements, no bricklayer could alone increase his speed through their adoption because it will be remembered that in all cases several bricklayers work together in a row and that the walls all around a building must grow at the same rate of speed. No one bricklayer, then, can work much faster than the one next to him. Nor has any one workman the authority to make other men cooperate with him to do faster work. It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and of enforcing this cooperation rests with the management alone. The management must supply continually one or more teachers to show each new man the new and simpler motions, and the slower men must be constantly watched and helped until they have risen to their proper speed. All of those who, after proper teaching, either will not or cannot work in accordance with the new methods and at the higher speed must be discharged by the management. The management must also recognize the broad fact that workmen will not submit to this more rigid standardization and will not work extra hard, unless they receive extra pay for doing it.
All of this involves an individual study of and treatment for each man, while in the past they have been handled in large groups.The management must also see that those who prepare the bricks and the mortar and adjust the scaffold, etc., for the bricklayers,
cooperate with them by doing their work just right and always on time; and they must also inform each bricklayer at frequent
intervals as to the progress he is making, so that he may not unintentionally fall off in his pace. Thus it will be seen that it is the assumption by the management of new duties and new kinds of work never done by employers in the past that makes this great
improvement possible, and that, without this new help from the management, the workman even with full knowledge of the new
methods and with the best of intentions could not attain these startling results.
Mr Gilbreth's method of bricklaying furnishes a simple illustration of true and effective cooperation. Not the type of cooperation in which a mass of workmen on one side together cooperate with the management; but that in which several men in the management (each one in his own particular way) help each workman individually, on the one hand, by studying his needs and his shortcomings and teaching him better and quicker methods, and, on the other hand, by seeing that all other workmen with whom he comes in contact help and cooperate with him by doing their part of the work right and fast.
The writer has gone thus fully into Mr Gilbreth's method in order that it may be perfectly clear that this increase in output and that
this harmony could not have been attained under the management of "initiative and incentive" (that is, by putting the problem up to
the workman and leaving him to solve it alone) which has been the philosophy of the past. And that his success has been due to the
use of the four elements which constitute the essence of scientific management.
First. The development (by the management, not the workman) of the science of bricklaying, with rigid rules for each motion of every man, and the perfection and standardization of all implements and working conditions.
Second. The careful selection and subsequent training of the bricklayers into first-class men, and the elimination of all men who refuse to or are unable to adopt the best methods.
Third. Bringing the first-class bricklayer and the science of bricklaying together, through the constant help and watchfulness of the management, and through paying each man a large daily bonus for working fast and doing what he is told to do.
Fourth. An almost equal division of the work and responsibility between the workman and the management. All day long the
management work almost side by side with the men, helping, encouraging, and smoothing the way for them, while in the past they
stood one side, gave the men but little help, and threw on to them almost the entire responsibility as to methods, implements, speed,
and harmonious cooperation.
Of these four elements, the first (the development of the science of bricklaying) is the most interesting and spectacular. Each of the three others is, however, quite as necessary for success.
It must not be forgotten that back of all this, and directing it, there must be the optimistic, determined, and hard-working leader who can wait patiently as well as work.
In most cases (particularly when the work to be done is intricate in its nature) the "development of the science" is the most important of the four great elements of the new management. There are instances, however, in which the "scientific selection of the workman" counts for more than anything else.
A case of this type is well illustrated in the very simple though unusual work of inspecting bicycle balls. When the bicycle craze was at its height some years ago several million small balls made of hardened steel were used annually in bicycle bearings. And among the twenty or more operations used in making steel balls, perhaps the most important was that of inspecting them after final polishing so as to remove all fire-cracked or otherwise imperfect balls before boxing.
The writer was given the task of systematizing the largest bicycle ball factory in this country. This company had been running for from eight to ten years on ordinary day work before he undertook its reorganization, so that the one hundred and twenty or more girls who were inspecting the balls were "old hands" and skilled at their jobs. It is impossible even in the most elementary work to change rapidly from the old independence of individual day work to scientific cooperation.
In most cases, however, there exist certain imperfections in working conditions which can at once be improved with benefit to all concerned.
In this instance it was found that the inspectors (girls) were working ten and one-half hours per day (with a Saturday half holiday.)
Their work consisted briefly in placing a row of small polished steel balls on the back of the left hand, in the crease between two of
the fingers pressed together, and while they were rolled over and over, they were minutely examined in a strong light, and with the
aid of a magnet held in the right hand, the defective balls were picked out and thrown into especial boxes. Four kinds of defects were
looked for -- dented, soft, scratched, and fire-cracked -- and they were mostly so minute as to be invisible to an eye not especially
trained to this work. It required the closest attention and concentration, so that the nervous tension of the inspectors was
considerable, in spite of the fact that they were comfortably seated and were not physically tired.
A most casual study made it evident that a very considerable part of the ten and one-half hours during which the girls were supposed to work was really spent in idleness because the working period was too long.
It is a matter of ordinary common sense to plan working hours so that the workers can really "work while they work" and "play while they play," and not mix the two.
Before the arrival of Mr Sanford E. Thompson, who undertook a scientific study of the whole process, we decided, therefore, to shorten the working hours.
The old foreman who had been over the inspecting room for years was instructed to interview one after another of the better
inspectors and the more influential girls and persuade them that they could do just as much work in ten hours each day as they had
been doing in ten and one-half hours. Each girl was told that the proposition was to shorten the day's work to ten hours and pay
them the same day's pay they were receiving for the ten and one-half hours.
In about two weeks the foreman reported that all of the girls he had talked to agreed that they could do their present work just as well in ten hours as in ten and one-half and that they approved of the change.
The writer had not been especially noted for his tact so he decided that it would be wise for him to display a little more of this quality by having the girls vote on the new proposition. This decision was hardly justified, however, for when the vote was taken the girls were unanimous that l0 1/2 hours was good enough for them and they wanted no innovation of any kind.
This settled the matter for the time being. A few months later tact was thrown to the winds and the working hours were arbitrarily shortened in successive steps to 10 hours, 9 1/2, 9, and 8 1/2 (the pay per day remaining the same); and with each shortening of the working day the output increased instead of diminishing.
The change from the old to the scientific method in this department was made under the direction of Mr Sanford E. Thompson, perhaps the most experienced man in motion and time study in this country, under the general superintendence of Mr H. L. Gautt.
In the Physiological departments of our universities experiments are regularly conducted to determine what is known as the "personal coefficient" of the man tested. This is done by suddenly bringing some object, the letter A or B for instance, within the range of vision of the subject, who, the instant he recognizes the letter has to do some definite thing, such as to press a particular electric button. The time which elapses from the instant the letter comes in view until the subject presses the button is accurately recorded by a delicate scientific instrument.
This test shows conclusively that there is a great difference in the "personal coefficient" of different men. Some individuals are born
with unusually quick powers of perception accompanied by quick responsive action. With some the message is almost instantly
transmitted from the eye to the brain, and the brain equally quickly responds by sending the proper message to the hand.
Men of this type are said to have a low "personal coefficient," while those of slow perception and slow action have a high "personal coefficient."
Mr Thompson soon recognized that the quality most needed for bicycle ball inspectors was a low "personal coefficient." Of course the ordinary qualities of endurance and industry were also called for.
For the ultimate good of the girls as well as the company, however, it became necessary to exclude all girls who lacked a low "personal coefficient." And unfortunately this involved laying off many of the most intelligent, hardest working, and most trustworthy girls merely because they did not possess the quality of quick perception followed by quick action.
While the gradual selection of girls was going on other changes were also being made.
One of the dangers to be guarded against, when the pay of the man or woman is made in any way to depend on the quantity of the work done, is that in the effort to increase the quantity the quality is apt to deteriorate.
It is necessary in almost all cases, therefore, to take definite steps to insure against any falling off in quality before moving in any way towards an increase in quantity.
In the work of these particular girls quality was the very essence. They were engaged in picking out all defective balls.
The first step, therefore, was to make it impossible for them to slight their work without being found out. This was accomplished
through what is known as over-inspection Each one of four of the most trustworthy girls was given each day a lot of balls to inspect
which had been examined the day before by one of the regular inspectors; the number identifying the lot to be over-inspected having
been changed by the foreman so that none of the over-inspectors knew whose work they were examining. In addition to this one of
the lots inspected by the four over-inspectors was examined on the following day by the chief inspector, selected on account of her
especial accuracy and integrity.
An effective expedient was adopted for checking the honesty and accuracy of the over-inspection. Every two or three days a lot of balls was especially prepared by the foreman, who counted out a definite number of perfect balls, and added a recorded number of defective balls of each kind. Neither the inspectors nor the over-inspectors had any means of distinguishing this prepared lot from the regular commercial lots. And in this way all temptation to slight their work or make false returns was removed.
After insuring in this way against deterioration in quality, effective means were at once adopted to increase the output. Improved day work was substituted for the old slipshod method. An accurate daily record was kept both as to the quantity and quality of the work done in order to guard against any personal prejudice on the part of the foreman and to insure absolute impartiality and justice for each inspector. In a comparatively short time this record enabled the foreman to stir the ambition of all the inspectors by increasing the wages of those who turned out a large quantity and good quality, while at the same time lowering the pay of those who did indifferent work and discharging others who proved to be incorrigibly slow or careless. A careful examination was then made of the way in which each girl spent her time and an accurate time study was undertaken, through the use of a stop-watch and record blanks, to determine how fast each kind of inspection should be done, and to establish the exact conditions under which each girl could do her quickest and best work, while at the same time guarding against giving her a task so severe that there was danger from over fatigue or exhaustion. This investigation showed that the girls spent a considerable part of their time either in partial idleness, talking and half working, or in actually doing nothing.
Even when the hours of labor had been shortened from 10 1/2 to 8 1/2 hours, a close observation of the girls showed that after about an hour and one-half of consecutive work they began to get nervous. They evidently needed a rest. It is wise to stop short of the point at which overstrain begins, so we arranged for them to have a ten minutes period for recreation at the end of each hour and one quarter. During these recess periods (two of ten minutes each in the morning and two in the afternoon) they were obliged to stop work and were encouraged to leave their seats and get a complete change of occupation by walking around and talking, etc.
In one respect no doubt some people will say that these girls were brutally treated. They were seated so far apart that they could not conveniently talk while at work.
Shortening their hours of labor, however, and providing so far as we knew the most favorable working conditions made it possible for them to really work steadily instead of pretending to do so.
And it is only after this stage in the reorganization is reached, when the girls have been properly selected and on the one hand such precautions have been taken as to guard against the possibility of over-driving them, while, on the other hand, the temptation to slight their work has been removed and the most favorable working conditions have been established, that the final step should be taken which insures them what they most want, namely, high wages, and the employers what they most want, namely, the maximum output and best quality of work, -- which means a low labor cost.
This step is to give each girl each day a carefully measured task which demands a full day's work from a competent operative, and also to give her a large premium or bonus whenever she accomplishes this task.
This was done in this case through establishing what is known as differential rate piece work.(5*) Under this system the pay of each girl was increased in proportion to the quantity of her output and also still more in proportion to the accuracy of her work.
As will be shown later, the differential rate (the lots inspected by the over-inspectors forming the basis for the differential) resulted in a large gain in the quantity of work done and at the same time in a marked improvement in the quality.
Before they finally worked to the best advantage it was found to be necessary to measure the output of each girl as often as once every hour, and to send a teacher to each individual who was found to be falling behind to find what was wrong, to straighten her out, and to encourage and help her to catch up.
There is a general principle back of this which should be appreciated by all of those who are especially interested in the management of men. A reward, if it is to be effective in stimulating men to do their best work, must come soon after the work has been done. But few men are able to look forward for more than a week or perhaps at most a month, and work hard for a reward which they are to receive at the end of this time.
The average workman must be able to measure what he has accomplished and clearly see his reward at the end of each day if he is to do his best. And more elementary characters, such as the young girls inspecting bicycle balls, or children, for instance, should have proper encouragement either in the shape of personal attention from those over them or an actual reward in sight as often as once an hour.
This is one of the principal reasons why cooperation or "profit-sharing" either through selling stock to the employees or through
dividends on wages received at the end of the year, etc., have been at the best only mildly effective in stimulating men to work hard.
The nice time which they are sure to have to-day if they take things easily and go slowly proves more attractive than steady hard
work with a possible reward to be shared with others six months later. A second reason for the inefficiency of profit-sharing
schemes had been that no form of cooperation has yet been devised in which each individual is allowed free scope for his personal
ambition. Personal ambition always has been and will remain a more powerful incentive to exertion than a desire for the general
welfare. The few misplaced drones, who do the loafing and share equally in the profits, with the rest, under cooperation are sure to
drag the better men down toward their level.
Other and formidable difficulties in the path of cooperative schemes are, the equitable division of the profits, and the fact that, while workmen are always ready to share the profits, they are neither able nor willing to share the losses. Further than this, in many cases, it is neither right nor just that they should share either the profits or the losses, since these may be due in great part to causes entirely beyond their influence or control, and to which they do not contribute.
To come back to the girls inspecting bicycle balls, however, the final outcome of all the changes was that thirty-five girls did the work formerly done by one hundred and twenty. And that the accuracy of the work at the higher speed was two-thirds greater than at the former slow speed.
The good that came to the girls was,
First. That they averaged from 80 to 100 per cent higher wages than they formerly received.
Second. Their hours of labor were shortened from 10 1/2 to 8 1/2 per day, with a Saturday half holiday. And they were given four recreation periods properly distributed through the day, which made overworkmg impossible for a healthy girl.
Third. Each girl was made to feel that she was the object of especial care and interest on the part of the management, and that if anything went wrong with hershe could always have a helper and teacher in the management to lean upon.
Fourth. All young women should be given two consecutive days of rest (with pay)each month, to be taken whenever they may choose. It is my impression that these girls were given this privilege, although I am not quite certain on this point.
The benefits which came to the company from these changes were:
First. A substantial improvement in the quality of the product.
Second. A material reduction in the cost of inspection, in spite of the extra expense involved in clerk work, teachers, time study, over-inspectors, and in paying higher wages.
Third. That the most friendly relations existed between the management and the employees, which rendered labor troubles of any kind or a strike impossible.
These good results were brought about by many changes which substituted favorable for unfavorable working conditions. It should be appreciated, however, that the one element which did more than all of the others was, the careful selection of girls with quick perception to replace those whose perceptions were slow -- (the substitution of girls with a low personal coefficient for those whose personal coefficient was high) -- the scientific selection of the workers.